The Welfare State

HISTORY OF THE WELFARE STATE: The job and noteworthiness of the Beveridge Report in building up the Welfare State in Britain. The motivation behind this exposition is to take a gander at the long history of the Welfare State in Britain and the advancing social, financial and political changes in the public arena today, just as the introduction of the Welfare State after the Second World War which was the defining moment (watershed) in British History.The newly designated Labor government by then assumed the activity of setting up a ‘welfare state’ that would efficiently manage the ‘five goliath evils’ proposed by William Beveridge in a report, which later got known as the Beveridge report. The British government assistance state, in the event that it is to be characterized, it is commonly joined with Sir William Beveridge and the after war period.Welfare State is the idea where government assumes a key job in ensuring and advancing the financial and social p rosperity of its residents, in light of the standards of equivalent open door in the conveyance of riches and open obligation regarding the individuals who come up short on the negligible arrangements for a decent life, for instance great wellbeing, training and fundamental pay (Abercrombie and Warde 2000). Is it the obligation of a legislature to accommodate its resident, shouldn't something be said about the expense, since it can prompt ever-expanding open spending that the administration may discover hard to sustain.According to Abercrombie and Warde (2000) the term ‘welfare state’ was designed, after the Second World War when Social arrangement was creating. During the Second World War, the alliance government headed by Winston Churchill, the traditionalist party burn carrier intentionally arranged the formation of a superior Britain than the one where numerous individuals have lived in the neediness blasted 1930s.Plans were drafted and strategies were produced whic h were to guarantee that, in peacetime, there would be a family emotionally supportive network, great social insurance for every single, more employment will be made accessible just as making new towns and satisfactory lodging (Walsh et al, 2000). Be that as it may, in 1941, during the Second World War, Sir William Beveridge was given an assignment by Winston Churchill (wartime executive of the alliance government) to head an interdepartmental advisory group of government employees in a nvestigation and assess the national protection strategies just as recommendations of approaches to improve them (Addison, 2005). Yet, as indicated by Walsh et al (2000) Beveridge went farther than the first terms of references given him. In the last articulation know as the ‘Beveridge report’ ( ), it was presented by its planner, Sir William Beveridge, to the British parliament in 1942. All through this report, Beveridge continued referencing the annulment of ‘want’ which w as accepted to be the serious issue at the time.He anticipated significant changes in wellbeing, lodging, and training; on the grounds that the approaches expected to assault the five monster wrongs were set out in detail in his report. The five monster indecencies were need, sickness, numbness, inertness and filthiness by which he implied destitution, joblessness, poor lodging and absence of access to tolerable instruction and human services. This report was radical and became famous incompletely in view of its guarantee of standardized savings for all, and halfway in light of the fact that it infers the vision of the peacetime life guaranteed by Winston Churchill around then for which million were aching (Abercrombie and Warde 2000).Winston Churchill was unsettled on the grounds that the Beveridge report raised issues which diverted people’s consideration from the Second World War just as taking steps to deliver debate between the alliance governments. He likewise objected to the Beveridge report on the ground that no administration could submit ahead of time the consumption in question, accordingly, disarrays between the Conservative and the Labor individuals and this influenced his political race champagne during the post war (Addison, 2005).William Beveridge suggestions dependent on social study, were intended to handle neediness principally through the improvement of a national government disability framework, giving salary security ‘from the support to the grave’( life - long) that will just because permitted the British individuals to have genuine pay security that would be accessible to everybody paying little mind to implies testing.As much as the ‘five giant’ contrasts from one another, there is an association among them, for instance, joblessness in the public arena makes individuals need monetarily and this can prompt absence of good clinical consideration, need, poor lodging and so forth. The Five mammoth shades o f malice; Want, basically this alludes to neediness or need, during the post war a great deal of the British individuals were out of luck, they had no essential money related help and medicinal services to keep them alive just as keeping them over the destitution line by which pay doesn't cover necessities.Due to absence of budgetary help individuals couldn't manage the cost of instruction and this brought about absence of information which is alluded to as Ignorance, this was because of poor training. To make matter most exceedingly awful there was no national medicinal services since, this must be paid for, yet there was no cash and clinical consideration was not free and this prompted the episode of numerous sicknesses, for example, cholera, this was additionally connected to need, no cash no clinical care.Nevertheless, there were emergency clinics and just the wealthy in the public eye could bear the cost of clinical treatment, nonetheless, today the government assistance state had made clinical treatment accessible for all paying little mind to work status. Individuals were living in ghettos in light of the fact that there was poor lodging and this was alluded to as squalors, there is no distinction today despite the fact that the government assistance state has made arrangement for lodging and a portion of these houses have been transformed into ghettos by their occupant.Occupant of these houses don’t care to keep these houses clean since it cost them nothing, this monster is called Squalor, today is still with us. The last goliath was alluded to as Idleness, this was because of the aftereffect from dejections from the hour of joblessness, today a few people have decided to remain inert, in light of the fact that the state will take care of and house them. As much as the government assistance state is acceptable, the Victorian ‘workhouses’ would have been useful in managing inaction in the public eye, since one would need to work at t he workhouse so as to find support from the state.The Beveridge report was a significant record since it set out point by point strategies for the assault expected to pulverize the five mammoth wrongs, however the five goliath disasters were not obliterated totally, be that as it may, the Beveridge report left a heritage, the NHS and now there is in no way like total destitution in Britain as contrast with the years prior to the Second World War when individuals use to really stay in bed ghetto, accordingly the Beveridge report was an outline on which the government assistance state was developed in light of the fact that it helped shape Britain’s social approaches. (Naidoo and Wills, 2008). The distribution of the Beveridge report was an incredible success.Majority of the British open invited the report’s finding and wished to see them actualized as fast as conceivable as indicated by an assessment of public sentiment (national documents, 2003). This demonstrates the degree to which the populace had moved to one side wing (speaking to the Labor party) over the span of the Second World War. The post war political race, in June 1945 brought about an avalanche triumph for the Labor Party drove by Clement Attlee , who guaranteed in their political race that they will handle Beveridge’s five monster shades of malice and built up ‘New Jerusalem’ which was hesitantly dismissed by Winston Churchill.To execute the Beveridge’s report, the Labor party assaulted the ‘five goliath evil’ by passing enactments, however they were not totally crushed, be that as it may, one of the mammoth called ailment, the most renowned handled by the Labor government left the state with a heritage, the 1946 National Health Service Act which implied free open social insurance framework for all start in 1948, however it was immensely costly. In 1946 the national protection act was passed to handled the goliath called ‘want’ m aking arrangements for the jobless and pregnant ladies, benefits for the resigned and etc.The instruction Act 1944, a moderate plan to handle ‘ignorance’ so training was made free, the school leaving age was moved to 16 years already 15. In 1947 Labor passed the instruction demonstration into law. In 1948 the business and preparing act was passed to handle both ‘ignorance’ and ‘idleness’ making arrangement for school leavers , demobbed administration men to prepare and set up a gifted workforce. Also, gathering house structures and full business was improved conceivable by an economy after the war. The five monsters were handled, yet were not obliterated, on the grounds that neediness has consistently lived with society.Comparably, there is in no way like total destitution in Britain today not at all like before the government assistance state when individuals needed to make their homes in ghettos. Government assistance states differ transientl y just as geologically. Like time government assistance states don't stop. Their advancement relies upon decisions made inside limitations (Powell, 1999). As per Marx (1999) government assistance states make their own chronicles, however not inside conditions based on their very own preference (refered to in Powell, 1999). Today, the suggestions and approaches that were nitty gritty in the Beveridge eport to handle neediness fundamentally through the improvement of a national standardized savings framework are as yet considered to give the establishment of the cutting edge government assistance state References Lambert, T (2010). A Brief History of Poverty [online]. Accessible from: http://www. localhistories. organization/povhist. html. [Accessed on 25th January 2011] National Archive (2003). The Welfare State [online]. Accessible from: http://www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/pathways/citizenship/brave_new_world/government assistance. htm. [Accessed on 30th January 2011] Addi

Sorry, But I Just Dont Get Game of Thrones

Sorry, But I Just Don’t Get Game of Thrones Sorry, But I Just Don’t Get Game of Thrones Please tell me why I should care about Daenerys Somethingen and her dragons “So, did you see Game of Thrones last night?” Oh dear, I think. This is the part of the conversation I can’t join in with. I’ll just have to sit quietly until the subject gets changed. Yes, you read that right. I don’t watch Game of Thrones. Or any of the Lord of the Rings or the Hobbit or any other fantasy TV series/film. I don’t really have any interest in doing so either. It often feels like I’m the only one not watching Game of Thrones, especially when everyone on Twitter is reeling over yet another character dying at a wedding â€" seriously, by the sounds of it everyone on this show dies. Even without watching it, I’ve been exposed to the fact winter is coming and Jon Snow knows nothing, but what the different royal houses in the show are actually fighting over I don’t know. I know some people will think I just need to give it a chance, but trust me I have. I watched a few episodes while at university to see what the fuss was about but instantly knew it wasn’t my thing. The opening credits and the show’s theme music are great, but they also made me immediately aware how complicated this world is. Maybe it’s easier to keep track of if you’re really into the series and have read all the books (as my boyfriend has) but that’s a significant investment of time. via GIPHY *Daenerys seems like a cool character, she seems particularly passionate about getting whatever it is she’s trying to get. Looking at the size of the Game of Thrones books sitting on his shelf, I can’t help but wonder how long it must have taken him. I enjoy reading but I was too lazy to even finish the Harry Potter series. (I also didn’t make it past the second film, as seeing an increasingly moody Daniel Radcliffe glaring at me on all the posters put me off. I know it made sense to the plot because VOLDEMORT WAS BACK OMG, but it just didn’t seem fun anymore.) Although Game of Thrones does nothing for me, I can see it’s well made full of talented actors (I really like Emilia Clarke and Peter Dinklage in particular), strong writing, and great special effects, but beyond that it just leaves me cold. I don’t see why fantasy stories have to involve millions of characters and families to remember, as well as different species to get your head around. There’s so much to follow that I end up immediately feeling behind. Although I feel a bit left out when everyone’s talking about Game of Thrones, sometimes I’m actually glad I’m not hooked on it. I’m admittedly a bit of a wuss when it comes to blood and gore, and it sounds like the show takes it pretty far sometimes. There’s also a lot of rape from what I’ve heard (something the show has been criticized for), and I don’t really get why anyone would enjoy watching a show in which half the characters die and the other half get raped. Obviously, a TV series like Game of Thrones was never going to be all fluffy bunnies and rainbows, but I can proudly say it’s not for me. That said, if you enjoy it, that’s great. I’m never going to tell someone they shouldn’t watch something just because it’s not my thing. Just remember to find something else for us to talk about instead.

Social Psychology Experiment The Stanford Prison Experiment

After the famous social psychology experiment, The Stanford Prison Experiment, many have asked whether or not this experiment can really portray how imprisonment can effect an individual. While some say that this experiment is a great representation of the effects caused due to imprisonment, others argue that the experiment was not realistic enough to say it had real effects. Social psychologists Craig Haney and Philip Zimbardo, also the creators of the Stanford Prison Experiment, state that the experiment stimulated a realistic feel. Therefore, this experiment can be said to have a high external validity. In other words, this experiment’s results can be applied to the general population of imprisoned individuals (pg. 206). On the other hand, behavioral geneticist David Lykken exclaims that the artificial similarities that were added to stimulate the prison environment are not sufficient to understand the effects of being imprisoned. This is due to the short amount of time tha t the study was ran and the fact that many of the participants had a distinct psychological background than most criminals (pg. 207). The focus of this paper is to critique and present both sides of the argument. Craig Haney and Philip Zimbardo created a famous experiment called the Stanford Prison Experiment. In this experiment, healthy and normal college students were assigned to be either prisoners or guards. After only 6 days of this simulation, many of the mock-prisoners had to plead for theShow MoreRelatedThe Stanford Prison Experiment And Its Effects On Social Psychology1003 Words   |  5 PagesThe Stanford Prison Experiment and its Effects on Social Psychology The Stanford Prison Experiment is one of the most notorious and unique experiments in modern social psychology history. A psychologist named Philip Zimbardo executed the Stanford Prison Experiment in 1971. His goal for this experiment was to show that the prison guards and convicts would fall into pre-defined roles, rather than following their own judgment and morals. The experiment was unsuccessful, but it produced some resultsRead MoreI Chose The Topic Of Prison Psychology With A Focus On1198 Words   |  5 PagesI chose the topic of prison psychology with a focus on the Stanford prison experiment and the psychological effects of systematic abuse. Zimbardo, Philip G. Revisiting the Stanford Prison Experiment: A Lesson in the Power of Situation. The Chronicle of Higher Education, no. 30, 2007. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.uhd.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=truedb=edsgbcAN=edsgcl.161992127site=eds-livescope=site. The Stanford Prison Experiment was a study on the psychological effectsRead MoreThe Stanford Prison Experiment At Stanford University1239 Words   |  5 Pagesstudent at Stanford University in California. Like most college kids, you are strapped for cash, so you begin to seek a part time job. You see an ad for a psychology study that pays $15 per day posted in the local newspaper, and decide to submit an application. Little do you know at the time, that the study you are applying for will become known worldwide and create such an impact that it remains relevant over 44 years later. This infamous study is known today as the Stanford Prison Experiment. The experimentRead MoreLate Adulthood705 Words   |  3 PagesZimbardo, a psychology professor at Stanford University. Zimbardo researching how prisoners and guards learned submissive and authoritarian roles. There was an ad placed in the newspaper by Zimbardo seeking male subjects to participate in his research experiment. There wa s a $15 per day compensation offered to the chosen participants. There were roughly 75 people to respond to the professors ad. 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The Stanford prison experiment was designed to find out â€Å"whether the brutality reported among guards in American prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards or had more to do with the prison environment† (McLeod 1). Zimbardo was influenced by the Milgram experiment, which was a studyRead MoreThe Stanford Prison Experiment1658 Words   |  7 Pagesimportant issues today. The Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted over 40 years ago, brought these ethical issues into the limelight and remains one of the most controversial studies in the history of studying human behavior. This paper aims to define ethics, describe risk/benefit ratio, provide a brief background on the Stanford Prison Experiment, and evaluate the impact it has had on psychological research. â€Æ' The Stanford Prison Experiment The Stanford Prison Experiment probably tops a lot of listsRead MoreZimbardo Research Paper1029 Words   |  5 Pages The Stanford Prison Experiment was a study conducted in 1971 by Dr. Phillip Zimbardo. According to Dr. Steve Taylor (2007), â€Å"It’s probably the best known psychological study of all time.† (Classic Studies in Psychology, 2007). Zimbardo stated that the point was to see what would happen if he put â€Å"really good people in a bad place† (Dr. Zimbardo, 2007). He did this during a time were most college students were protesting for peace and were against anything authoritarian. The experiment containedRead MoreThe Media Of My Choice Was The Stanford Prison Experiment Essay1365 Words   |  6 Pageschoice was the Stanford Prison Experiment movie. The movie gave an in-depth view on how the experiment came about and what happened during the process. Within this paper I will give details on what exactly the Stanford Prison Experiment was, diff erent topics we learned over the course of Social Psychology that relate to the Stanford Prison Experiment and the affects it had on me and could have on others. The Stanford Prison Experiment took place August 14-20th 1971. It was an experiment conducted byRead MoreZimbardo Doesn t Have An Extraordinary Life1150 Words   |  5 Pagesemotional breakdowns and psychosomatic rashes all because of a mock prison experience? Surely it would be unethical and inappropriate to imprison 20 strangers into a basement of a universities’ psychology building merely to observe how they would act towards one another. But to Philip Zimbardo this unheard of experiment was just another day on the job. This young psychology major could have never predicted that his landmark experiment would become such a highly talked about documentation of the true

Sir Thomas Wyatt s Defence - 935 Words

Sir Thomas Wyatt’s defence covered two major areas; the possible insulting of the king and conspiring with Catholics in a newly decided protestant country. His 1541 defence guards his actions on both parts, however due to the lack of historical evidence it is impossible to know if this defence was ever used, even if we do know he somehow did manage to get himself off the charges. Nevertheless, it offers great insight to the mind and feelings of an otherwise elusive and ambiguous historical figure. It is this, that being Wyatt writing about his own biography, that offers vital importance to his poetry, and more importantly his satires like ‘Myne Owne John Poyntz’. Through Wyatt’s own work we can examine the possible emotion, and tie it down to its own specific historical moment. Furthermore, this leads us to question the relationship between Wyatt and the king, Henry VIII. The alleged love triangle between them and Anne Boleyn might suggest more room for speculation on his defence and the general sentiments Wyatt might have that would lead him to, in a moment of high-emotion, blaspheme openly against the king. Indeed it is alluded to in ‘Myne Owne John Poyntz’, ‘I am not he that can allow the state/of his Caesar, and damn Cato to die’, that the king is, in Wyatt’s mind, a focus of great animosity. Classical allusion is, and remains to be, a traditional device for distancing oneself from the characters around you to directly criticise the climate of court or socialShow MoreRelatedSir Philip Sidney’s defence essay, â€Å"An apology for poetry,† refers to poetry â€Å"as an art of1900 Words   |  8 PagesSir Philip Sidney’s defence essay, â€Å"An apology for poetry,† refers to poetry â€Å"as an art of imitation [†¦] [that] speaks metaphorically† (Ferguson, Salter Stallworthy, 2005: 331). Sidney’s essay epitomises the pivitol importance and art of creating poetry. From the 1500’s to the 1660’s, England found itself a process of complete rebirth of all its important facets. Transformation in its social and cultural, as well as philosophical and religious approaches was evident. This transformational processRead MoreContracts and Negligence Assignment8955 Words   |  36 Pagesat the request of offerer. Durga Prasad v Baldeo (1880) It must move from the promisee. Dutton v Poole (1677) Tweddle v. Atkinson (1861) It must be sufficient. Thomas v Thomas (1842); Chappel v Nestle (1960). Cannot consist solely on sentiment value White v Bluett (1853) It must be legal that is not doing things that are immoral Wyatt v Kreglinger and Fernou (1933) Performance of existing duty that is, person carrying out duties that under general rules, they are required to do will not provideRead MoreLiterary Group in British Poetry5631 Words   |  23 Pagesprestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament and courts of law. It was with the 14th century that major works of English literature began once again to appear; these include the so-called Pearl Poets Pearl, Patience, Cleanness, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight; Langlands political and religious allegory Piers Plowman; Gowers Confessio Amantis; and, of course, the works of Chaucer, the most highly regarded English poet of the Middle Ages, who was seen by his contemporaries as

Essay on Kant, the Body, and Knowledge - 3856 Words

I discuss the philosophical significance of Kants great cosmological work of 1755, the Universal Natural History. I discuss how Kants interest in Newtonian universal forces led him to affirm a peculiar version of the physical influx theory. I argue that Kants speculations about life on other planets are highly significant because they point to a key feature of Kants theory of physical influx, namely that the nimble motions of the body stand as necessary conditions of the possibility of knowledge. This work directs us to an important topic that has received little scholarly interest: the relation between the body and knowledge in Kants philosophical writings. For nearly all of his career, Kant believed that the body stands as a†¦show more content†¦First, the radically different natures of souls and bodies make them incapable of acting on one another. Second, any action by the soul on the body would violate laws of conservation of motion. Third, physical influx involves the m etaphysically ridiculous claim that accidents migrate from substance to substance. More generally physical influx theories were also thought to lead to a determinism that was morally pernicious, namely because it undermines freedom, responsibility, and Scripture. So much for historical background. Kants theory of physical influx begins with his interest in Newtonian universal forces. This interest is in his Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755), a work whose subtitle is Essay on the Constitution and Mechanical Origin of the Entire Universe, Treated in Accordance with Newtonian Principles. The plan of this work is to show how general laws of motion and the accepted law of attraction can be used to explain the development of the universe out of an original chaos (1:246, Jaki p. 92.) (2) In this way, he seeks to discover the systematic factor which ties together the great members of the created realm in the whole extent of infinity (1:221, Jaki p. 81). Kants focus on the systematicity of nature makes his concerns even more far-reaching than extending Newtonian mechanics to explain the evolution of theShow MoreRelatedCompare and contrast the significance for psychology of Descartes and Kant1568 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿ Compare and contrast the significance for psychology of Descartes and Kant Descartes and Kant, both of them are famous philosophers and they are well known for their contributions to philosophy. At the same time, they have great influence on the development of psychology. I am going to compare their significance of psychology. By observing some mechanical thingsRead MoreCartesian Rationalism Vs. Locke s Empiricism Essay1632 Words   |  7 Pagesempiricism Rene Descartes was a rationalist who believed that knowledge of the world can be gained by the exercise of pure reason, while empiricist like Locke believed that knowledge of the world came through senses. Descartes from his meditations deduced from intuitive first principles the existence of self, of God, of the mind as a thinking substance and the extended body as a material substance whereas Locke, asserts that knowledge is acquired through perception, direct sensory of the world, reflectionsRead More Transcendentalism: The Philosophy Of The Mind Essay example1046 Words   |  5 Pageslies beyond the knowledge obtained from the senses, a knowledge that transcendentalists regard as the mere appearance of things (Adventures 162). Transcendentalists believe the mind is where ideas are formed. The transcendentalist ideas of God, man, and the universe were not all original, but were a combination of other philosophies and religions. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;One of the major questions of philosophy is quot;What is the nature of the universe?quot; Immanuel Kant was one of the majorRead MoreRationalism vs. Empiricism Essay1573 Words   |  7 Pagessubjects, including knowledge. While the debate between the rationalist and empiricist schools did not have any relationship to the study of psychology at the time, it has contributed greatly to facilitating the possibility of establishing the discipline of Psychology. This essay will describe the empiricist and rationalist debate, and will relate this debate to the history of psychology. The debate between rationalist and empiricist philosophers looks at the nature of knowledge, and specificallyRead MoreKants Transcendental Problem: How is Natural Science Possible?1403 Words   |  6 PagesProblem: Kant attempts to answer the question â€Å"How is natural science possible?† (Kant 679R). Natural science in its modern use would simply be called science; it is the systematic body of knowledge that deals with nature. â€Å"Nature is the existence of things insofar as it is determined according to universal laws† (Kant 679R). In understanding nature, â€Å"we are concerned not with things in themselves, but rather with things as objects of possible experience, and the sum of these† (Kant 680L). ThisRead MorePerceptions Of The â€Å"Self†:.Kant Vs. Hume. When Thinking1160 Words   |  5 Pages Perceptions of the â€Å"Self†: Kant vs. Hume When thinking of the â€Å"self†, what comes to mind? Maybe it is the mind, soul, or body. Although all three of these make up the â€Å"self†. Many different philosophers have their different opinions about the self. Between the philosopher Hume and Kant, there are many differences and similarities in their opinions. Hume claimed that there is no self, and Kant believes we construct the self. According to Hume, a devout researcher, he claimed that thereRead More Hume Vs Kant Essay1745 Words   |  7 Pagesreasoning was based upon cause and effect. Causal relations help us to know things beyond our immediate vicinity. All of our knowledge is based on experience. Therefore, we need experience to come to causal relationships of the world and experience constant conjunction. Hume stated that he â€Å"shall venture to affirm, as a general proposition which admits no exception, that the knowledge of this relation is not in any instance, attained by reasonings ‘a priori’, but arises entirely from experience.† (42) Read MoreThe Nature of Existence and the Existence of Nature Essay examples1643 Words   |  7 Pagesproofs, usually ends with us adding that to our plethora of knowledge to ace the next test. However, before the Enlightenment many people believed that through learning, or experience, something comes to exist. Immanuel Kant ended up to be th e most influential philosopher of the 17th and 18th centuries. He and Rousseau were the first to disagree with the commonplace ideas of skepticism and dogmatism. Alongside his analytical theories, Kant wrote of what is now labeled the Categorical Imperative. HisRead MoreHow Do You Acquire Knowledge?992 Words   |  4 Pages How do you acquire knowledge? How can we know the nature of reality? That is the question that epistemology asks. But what is epistemology itself and where does it come from? Epistemology focuses on studying knowledge and justified beliefs. What is it that makes knowledge enough and what makes justified beliefs justifiable? Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher born on April 22nd, 1724. He was the man who attempted to build a bridge between the empiricists and the rationalists. When lookingRead MoreRene Descartes And Kant1013 Words   |  5 PagesAs with many philosophers worth studying, a common theme present amongst Renà © Descartes, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant is the fact that all three philosophers challenged the traditional ways of thinking about philosophy respective to their eras. In certain aspects, all three of these philosophers also grappled with understanding, discovering, and logically explaining the power of the mind to shape whole truths. From Descartes’ foundational work with methodological doubt to Kant’s contribution to

Managing Across Borders Technology

Question: Discuss about theManaging Across Bordersfor Technology. Answer: Introduction: Technology represents an ever-changing process that will be continued in the coming years as well. Many studies have highlighted technology has a major factor that is inducing global economy to change in continues manner (Baldwin 2013). Now, technological evaluation has also provided opportunities for different business entities to revolutionize their business process significantly. Specifically, technological evaluation has provided major assistance for the organizations to maintain international or overseas operational process in a completely different way. In this study, focus will on two of the most technology driven companies namely Uber and Apple for analyzing the possible impact on the technological advancement on overseas business landscape. Discussion: According to Dhakal et al. (2014), 21st century has introduced the biggest development and changes in the technological sector. As a result, it has provided direct opportunity for the organizations to revolutionize the operational process in order to remain competitive in the market. For instance, technology advancement has provided business entities to maintain continues connection with all the units present in different geographical condition. Therefore, it allows all the business units of an organization remain at the same page. Now, Apple is one of the prime organizations that has played major role in technological evaluation process. For instance, Apples iPod, iPad and GUI have made revolutionary changes in the process of communication. It has allowed people from different geographical region to remain in contact continuously. As a result, businesses do not have to go through any uncertainty in fulfilling the responsibilities of the operational process. As highlighted by Smith e t al. (2015) Apple can be considered as footnote in the modern computing story. Specifically, as iMac failed to compete with the Microsoft in the global market, business experts thought it would not able to sustain its position in the market. However, Apple with the technological advancement and innovative thought process has come up with revolutionary iPhones with combination of powerful apps. As a result, it has helped Apple to grab the attention of the global customers in an appropriate way. As mentioned by Park et al. (2015) with the utilization of revolutionary technologies, Apple has able to grab the attention of the global market in an effective way. Specifically, attributes like web surfing and emails checking has helped Apple to become popular among younger as well as working professionals. Therefore, it has helped organization to expand its reach in the global market as well. Presently, Apple is regarded as one of the most successful company of the world. On the other hand, Uber has been in the market for around past five years. Still, it has made quite an impact on the overall business procedure of the transport department. Uber has focused on utilize online platform for providing effective services to the customers. Therefore, it has focused on effective utilization of technology to provide innovative ideas to the potential customers for maintaining its business activities. Recent survey has highlighted the fact that 25% of the respondents have utilize Uber transport facilities while only 12% respondents have used its prime competitor namely Lyft. As mentioned by Cramer and Krueger (2016) app driven business is extremely innovative that require proper technological support. Uber has focused effective braking down of the task for the professionals so that people receive proper services. However, the entire operational process of Uber happens on app, which makes it extremely technology driven organization. In fact, the success of the Uber business depends on the effective utilization of technology. As per Boston Globe, Uber can be compared with any other start-up organization, which exists due to the innovative application programming interfaces. It has been assessed that business process of Uber focuses on effective utilization of technologies to communicate with the customers. For that reason, Uber focuses on utilizing API software for providing transmission to specific data like mapping and processing. Effective utilization of API technologies has allowed companies like Uber to become expert in location and mapping (uber.com 2017). It eventually helped the organization to focus on the provided quality of services. The innovative technology driven operational process of Uber and its competitors has provided new dimension for conducting business in the global market. Specifically, success of Uber has induced several other companies from different parts of the world to focus on app transport facilities. Thus, it can be assessed that both Uber and Apple has focused on innovation and unique thought processes to fulfill their business objectives in an appropriate way. Firstly, Apple has focused on providing innovative products or gadgets, which will provide completely new experiences to the customers. As a result, it will easily gain the popularity in the global market. Presently, Apple is arguably regarded as the most prestigious brand in the mobile and computer sector (apple.com 2017). Effective utilization of innovative technology has provided the opportunity for Apple to enhance its popularity in the global market. In fact, people from all across the globe wait for a new product launch of Apple so that they can have some unique experiences. On the other hand, Uber is presently focusing on take the online transportation services to different level. For instance, Uber has provided opportunity to the people from all across the world to be a part of the organization. Thus, Uber is actu ally focusing on sharing economy, which has received both negative and positive responses (Posen 2015). It has been assessed that Uber technology driven services has actually increased the health and safety related issues in a major way. For that reason, states like Massachusetts and Cambridge has legally banned the services of Uber. Conclusion: The above analysis has highlighted the fact that technology play critical role in revolutionize the business processes in a major way. It has highlighted the fact that technological evaluation has provided Apple the opportunity to become popularity in the global market. On the other hand, it also has helped Uber to emerge as the biggest name in the transport sector. However, it has recently also face few challenges regarding maintain continues evolvement of technologies. To conclude, it can be mentioned that organizations will have to handle technologies effectively for creating maximum impact on the international market. References: apple.com, 2017. Apple. [online] Apple. Available at: https://www.apple.com [Accessed 1 Feb. 2017]. Baldwin, E., 2013. The Phenomenon Behind the Bite: Altercasting as it Applies to Apple Technology. Cramer, J. and Krueger, A.B., 2016. Disruptive change in the taxi business: The case of Uber.The American Economic Review,106(5), pp.177-182. Dhakal, S., Li, Y., Peng, Y., Chao, K., Qin, J. and Guo, L., 2014. Prototype instrument development for non-destructive detection of pesticide residue in apple surface using Raman technology.Journal of Food Engineering,123, pp.94-103. Park, N.M., Williams, T.A., Walker, J.T.S., Butcher, M.R., Turner, J.A., Botha, N., Vereijssen, J. and Taylor, N.M., 2015. Enhancing innovation and technology transfer in the New Zealand apple industrylearnings from Apple Futures.New Zealand Plant Protection,68, pp.291-298. Posen, H.A., 2015. Ridesharing in the Sharing Economy: Should Regulators Impose Uber Regulations on Uber.Iowa L. Rev.,101, p.405. Smith, K., Iversen, C., Kossowsky, J., Odell, S., Gambhir, R. and Coakley, R., 2015. Apple apps for the management of pediatric pain and pain-related stress.Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology,3(2), p.93. uber.com, 2017. Sign Up to Drive or Tap and Ride. [online] Uber.com. Available at: https://www.uber.com [Accessed 1 Feb. 2017].

Periods of English Literature Essay Example

Periods of English Literature Essay For convenience of discussion, historians divide the continuity of English literature into segments of time that are called periods. The exact number, dates, and names of these periods vary,but the list below conforms to widespread practice. The list is followed by a brief comment on each period, in chronological order. 450-1066 Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) Period 1066-1500 Middle English Period 1500-1660 The Renaissance (or Early Modern) 1558-1603 Elizabethan Age 603-1625 Jacobean Age 1625-1649 Caroline Age 1649-1660 Commonwealth Period (or Puritan Interregnum) 1660-1785 The Neoclassical Period 1660-1700 The Restoration 1700-1745 The Augustan Age (or Age of Pope) 1745-1785 The Age of Sensibility (or Age of Johnson) 1785-1830 The Romantic Period 1832-1901 The Victorian Period 1848-1860 The Pre-Raphaelites 1880-1901 Aestheticism and Decadence 1901-1914 The Edwardian Period 1910-1936 The Georgian Period 1914- The Modern Period 1945- PostmodernismThe Old English Period, or the Anglo-Sa xon Period, extended from the invasion of Celtic England by Germanic tribes (the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) in the first half of the fifth century to the conquest of England in 1066 by the Norman French under the leadership of William the Conqueror. Only after they had been converted to Christianity in the seventh century did the Anglo-Saxons, whose earlier literature had been oral, begin to develop a written literature. (See oral formulaic poetry. A high level of culture and learning was soon achieved in various monasteries; the eighth-century churchmen Bede and Alcuin were major scholars who wrote in Latin, the standard language of international scholarship. The poetry written in the vernacular Anglo-Saxon, known also as Old English, included Beowulf (eighth century), the greatest of Germanic epic poems, and such lyric laments as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and Deor, all of which, though composed by Christian writers, reflect the conditions of life in the pagan past.Caedmon and Cy newulf were poets who wrote on biblical and religious themes, and there survive a number of Old English lives of saints, sermons, and paraphrases of books of the Bible. Alfred the Great, a West Saxon king (871-99) who for a time united all the kingdoms of southern England against a new wave of Germanic invaders, the Vikings, was no less important as a patron of literature than as a warrior. He himself translated into Old English various books of Latin prose, supervised translations by other hands, and instituted the Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, a continuous record, year by year, of important events in England.See H. M. Chadwick, The Heroic Age (1912); S. B. Greenfield, A Critical History of Old English Literature (1965); C. L. Wrenn, A Study of Old English Literature (1966). Middle English Period. The four and a half centuries between the Norman Conquest in 1066, which effected radical changes in the language, life, and culture of England, and about 1500, when the standard literary langu age (deriving from the dialect of the London area) had become recognizably modern English—that is, similar to the language we speak and write today.The span from 1100 to 1350 is sometimes discriminated as the Anglo- Norman Period, because the non-Latin literature of that time was written mainly in Anglo-Norman, the French dialect spoken by the invaders who had established themselves as the ruling class of England, and who shared a literary culture with French-speaking areas of mainland Europe. Among the important and influential works from this period are Marie de Frances Lais (c. 1180—which may have been written while Marie was at the royal court in England), Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meuns Roman de la Rose (12257-75? , and Chretien de Troyes Erec et Enide (the first Arthurian romance, C. 1165) and Yvain (c. 1177-81). When the native vernacular—descended from Anglo-Saxon, but with extensive lexical and syntactic elements assimilated from Anglo-Norman, and known as middle English—came into general literary use, it was at first mainly the vehicle for religious and homiletic writings. The first great age of primarily secular literature—rooted in the Anglo-Norman, French, Irish, and Welsh, as well as the native English literature—was the second half of the fourteenth century.This was the age of Chaucer and John Gower, of William Langlands great religious and satirical poem Piers Plowman, and of the anonymous master who wrote four major poems in complex alliterative meter, including Pearl, an elegy, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. This last work is the most accomplished of the English chivalric romances; the most notable prose romance was Thomas Malorys Morte dArthur, written a century later. The outstanding poets of the fifteenth century were the Scottish Chaucerians, who included King James I of Scotland and Robert Henryson.The fifteenth century was more important for popular literature than for the artful lit erature addressed to the upper classes: it was the age of many excellent songs, secular and religious, and of folk ballads, as well as the flowering time of the miracle and morality plays, which were written and produced for the general public. See W. L. Renwick and H. Orton, The Beginnings of English Literature to Skelton (rev. , 1952); H. S. Bennett, Chaucer and the Fifteenth Century (1947); Edward Vasta, ed. , Middle English Survey: Critical Essays (1965). The Renaissance, 1500-1660.There is an increasing use by historians of the term early modern to denote this era: see the entry Renaissance. Elizabethan Age. Strictly speaking, the period of the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603); the term Elizabethan, however, is often used loosely to refer to the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, even after the death of Elizabeth. This was a time of rapid development in English commerce, maritime power, and nationalist feeling—the defeat of the Spanish Armada occurred in 158 8. It was a great (in drama the greatest) age of English literature—the age of Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe,Edmund Spenser, Shakespeare, Sir Walter Raleigh, Francis Bacon, Ben Jonson, and many other extraordinary writers of prose and of dramatic, lyric, and narrative poetry. A number of scholars have looked back on this era as one of intellectual coherence and social order; an influential example was E. M. W. Tillyards The Elizabethan World Picture (1943). Recent historical critics, however, have emphasized its intellectual uncertainties and political and social conflicts; see new historicism. Jacobean Age. The reign of James I (in Latin, Jacobus), 1603-25, which followed that of Queen Elizabeth.This was the period in prose writings of Bacon, John Donnes sermons, Robert Burtons Anatomy of Melancholy, and the King James translation of the Bible. It was also the time of Shakespeares greatest tragedies and tragicomedies, and of major writings by other notable poets and playwrights including Donne, Ben Jonson, Michael Drayton, Lady Mary Wroth, Sir Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, John Webster, George Chapman, Thomas Middleton, Philip Massinger, and Elizabeth Cary, whose notable biblical drama The Tragedy of Mariam, the Faire Queene of Jewry was first long play by an Englishwoman to be published.See Basil Willey, The Seventeenth Century Background (1934); Douglas Bush, English Literature in the Earlier Seventeenth Century (1945); C. V. Wedgewood, Seventeenth Century English Literature (1950). Caroline Age. The reign of Charles I, 1625-49; the name is derived from Carolus, the Latin version of Charles. This was the time of the English Civil War fought between the supporters of the king (known as Cavaliers) and the supporters of Parliament (known as Roundheads/ from their custom of wearing their hair cut short).John Milton began his writing during this period; it was the age also of the religious poet George Herbert and of the prose writers Rober t Burton and Sir Thomas Browne. Associated with the court were the Cavalier poets, writers of witty and polished lyrics of courtship and gallantry. The group included Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and Thomas Carew. Robert Herrick, although a country parson, is often classified with the Cavalier poets because, like them, he was a Son of Ben—that is, an admirer and follower of Ben Jonson—in many of his lyrics of love and gallant compliment.See Robin Skelton, Cavalier Poets (1960). The Commonwealth Period, also known as the Puritan Interregnum,extends from the end of the Civil War and the execution of Charles I in 1649 to the restoration of the Stuart monarchy under Charles II in 1660. In this period England was ruled by Parliament under the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell; his death in 1658 marked the dissolution of the Commonwealth. Drama almost disappeared for eighteen years after the Puritans closed the public theaters in September 1642, not only on moral and re ligious grounds, but also to prevent public assemblies that might foment civil disorder.It was the age of Miltons political pamphlets, of Hobbes political treatise Leviathan (1651), of the prose writers Sir Thomas Browne, Thomas Fuller, Jeremy Taylor, and Izaak Walton, and of the poets Henry Vaughan, Edmund Waller, Abraham Cowley, Sir William Davenant, and Andrew Marvell. The Neoclassical Period, 1660-1785; see the entry neoclassic and romantic. Restoration. This period takes its name from the restoration of the Stuart line (Charles II) to the English throne in 1660, at the end of the Commonwealth; it is specified as lasting until 1700.The urbanity, wit, and licentiousness of the life centering on the court, in sharp contrast to the seriousness and sobriety of the earlier Puritan regime, is reflected in much of the literature of this age. The theaters came back to vigorous life after the revocation of the ban placed on them by the Puritans in 1642, although they became more exlusive ly oriented toward the aristocratic classes than they had been earlier.Sir George Etherege, William Wycherley, William Congreve, and John Dryden developed the distinctive comedy of manners called Restoration comedy, and Dryden, Thomas Otway, and other playwrights developed the even more distinctive form of tragedy called heroic drama. Dryden was the major poet and critic, as well as one of the major dramatists. Other poets were the satirists Samuel Butler and the Earl of Rochester; notable writers in prose, in addition to the masterly Dryden, were Samuel Pepys, Sir William Temple, the religious writer in vernacular English John Bunyan, and the philosopher John Locke.Aphra Behn, the first Englishwoman to earn her living by her pen and one of the most inventive and versatile authors of the age, wrote poems, highly successful plays, and Oroonoko, the tragic story of a noble African slave, an important precursor of the novel. See Basil Willey, The Seventeenth Century Background (1934); L. I. Bredvold, The Intellectual Milieu of John Dryden (1932). Augustan Age. The original Augustan Age was the brilliant literary period of Virgil, Horace, and Ovid under the Roman emperor Augustus (27 B. . -A. D. 14). In the eighteenth century and later, however, the term was frequently applied also to the literary period in England from approximately 1700 to 1745. The leading writers of the time (such as Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, and Joseph Addison) themselves drew the parallel to the Roman Augustans, and deliberately imitated their literary forms and subjects, their emphasis on social concerns, and their ideals of moderation, decorum, and urbanity. (See neoclassicism. A major representative of popular, rather than classical, writing in this period was the novelist, journalist, and pamphleteer Daniel Defoe. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was a brilliant letterwriter in a great era of letter-writing; she also wrote poems of wit and candor that violated the conventional moral and i ntellectual roles assigned to women in the Augustan era. Age of Sensibility. The period between the death of Alexander Pope in 1744, and 1785, which was one year after the death of Samuel Johnson and one year before Robert Burns Poems, Chiefly in Scottish Dialect. Alternative dates frequently proposed for the end of this period are 1789 and 1798; see Romantic Period. ) An older name for this half-century, the Age of Johnson, stresses the dominant position of Samuel Johnson (1709-84) and his literary and intellectual circle, which included Oliver Goldsmith, Edmund Burke, James Boswell, Edward Gibbon, and Hester Lynch Thrale. These authors on the whole represented a culmination of the literary and critical modes of neoclassicism and the worldview of the Enlightenment.The more recent name, Age of Sensibility, puts its stress on the emergence, in other writers of the 1740s and later, of new cultural attitudes, theories of literature, and types of poetry; we find in this period, for exam ple, a growing sympathy for the Middle Ages, a vogue of cultural primitivism, an awakening interest in ballads and other folk literature, a turn from neoclassic correctness and its emphasis on judgment and restraint to an emphasis on instinct and feeling, the development of a literature of sensibility, and above all the exaltation by some critics of original genius and a bardic poetry of the sublime and visionary imagination. Thomas Gray expressed this anti-neoclassic sensibility and set of values in his Stanzas to Mr. Bentley (1752): But not to one in this benighted age Is that diviner inspiration given, That burns in Shakespeares or in Miltons page, The pomp and prodigality of Heaven. Other poets who showed similar shifts in thought and taste were William Collins and Joseph and Thomas Warton (poets who, together with Gray, began in the 1740s the vogue for what Samuel Johnson slightingly referred to as ode, and elegy, and sonnet), Christopher Smart, and William Cowper.Thomas Percy published his influential Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765), which included many folk ballads and a few medieval metrical romances, and James Macpherson in the same decade published his greatly doctored (and in considerable part fabricated) versions of the poems of the Gaelic bard Ossian (Oisin) which were enormously popular throughout Europe. This was also the period of the great novelists, some realistic and satiric and some sentimental: Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Tobias Smollett, and Laurence Sterne. See W. J. Bate, From Classic to Romantic (1946); Northrop Frye, Toward Defining an Age of Sensibility, in Fables of Identity (1963), and ed. Romanticism Reconsidered (1965); F. W. Hilles and Harold Bloom, eds. , From Sensibility to Romanticism (1965). Romantic Period. The Romantic Period in English literature is dated as eginning in 1785 (see Age of Sensibility)—or alternatively in 1789 (the outbreak of the French Revolution), or in 1798 (the publication of Wil liam Wordsworths and Samuel Taylor Coleridges Lyrical Ballads)—and as ending either in 1830 or else in 1832, the year in which Sir Walter Scott died and the passage of the Reform Bill signaled the political preoccupations of the Victorian era. For some characteristics of the thought and writings of this remarkable and diverse literary period, as well as for a list of suggested readings, see neoclassic and romantic. The term is often applied also to literary movements in European countries and America; see periods of American literature. Romantic characteristics are usually said to have been manifested first in Germany and England in the 1790s, and not to have become prominent in France and America until two or three decades after that time.Major English writers of the period, in addition to Wordsworth and Coleridge, were the poets Robert Burns, William Blake, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, and Walter Savage Landor; the prose writers Charles Lamb, William Hazlit t, Thomas De Quincey, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Leigh Hunt; and the novelists Jane Austen, Sir Walter Scott, and Mary Shelley. The span between 1786 and the close of the eighteenth century was that of the Gothic romances by William Beckford, Matthew Gregory Lewis, William Godwin, and, above all, Anne Radcliffe. Victorian Period. The beginning of the Victorian Period is frequently dated 1830, or alternatively 1832 (the passage of the first Reform Bill), and sometimes 1837 (the accession of Queen Victoria); it extends to the death of Victoria in 1901.Historians often subdivide the long period into three phases: Early Victorian (to 1848), Mid-Victorian (1848-70), and Late Victorian (1870-1901). Much writing of the period, whether imaginative or didactic, in verse or in prose, dealt with or reflected the pressing social, economic, religious, and intellectual issues and problems of that era. (For a summary of these issues, and also for the derogatory use of the term Victorian, see Victori an and Victorianism. ) Among the notable poets were Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Christina Rossetti, Matthew Arnold, and Gerard Manley Hopkins (whose remarkably innovative poems, however, did not become known until they were published, long after his death, in 1918).The most prominent essayists were Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, Arnold, and Walter Pater; the most distinguished of many excellent novelists (this was a great age of English prose fiction) were Charlotte and Emily Bronte, Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Elizabeth Gaskell, George Eliot, George Meredith, Anthony Trollope, Thomas Hardy, and Samuel Butler. For prominent literary movements during the Victorian era, see the entries on Pre-Raphaelites, Aestheticism, and Decadence. Edwardian Period. The span between the death of Victoria (1901) and the beginning of World War I (1914) is named for King Edward VII, who reigned from 1901 to 1910.Poets writing at the time included Thomas Hardy (who gave up novels for poetry at the beginning of the century), Alfred Noyes, William Butler Yeats, and Rudyard Kipling; dramatists included Henry Arthur Jones, Arthur Wing Pinero, James Barrie, John Galsworthy, George Bernard Shaw, and the playwrights of the Celtic Revival such as Lady Gregory, Yeats, and John M. Synge. Many of the major achievements were in prose fiction— works by Thomas Hardy, Joseph Conrad, Ford Madox Ford, John Galsworthy, H. G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling, and Henry James, who published his major final novels, The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassadors, and The Golden Bowl, between 1902 and 1904.Georgian Period is a term applied both to the reigns in England of the four successive Georges (1714-1830) and (more frequently) to the reign of George V (1910-36). Georgian poets usually designates a group of writers in the latter era who loomed large in four anthologies entitled Georgian Poetry, which were published by Edward Marsh between 1912 and 1922. Marsh favored writers we now tend to regard as relatively minor poets such as Rupert Brooke, Walter de la Mare, Ralph Hodgson, W. H. Davies, and John Masefield. The term Georgian poetry has come to connote verse which is mainly rural in subject matter, deft and delicate rather than bold and passionate in manner, and traditional rather than experimental in technique and form.Modern Period. The application of the term modern, of course, varies with the passage of time, but it is frequently applied specifically to the literature written since the beginning of World War I in 1914; see modernism and postmodernism. This period has been marked by persistent and multidimensioned experiments in subject matter, form, and style, and has produced major achievements in all the literary genres. Among the notable writers are the poets W. B. Yeats, Wilfred Owen, T. S. Eliot, W. H. Auden, Robert Graves, Dylan Thomas, and Seamus Heaney; the novelists Joseph Conrad, James Joyce, D. H. Lawrence, Doroth y Richardson, Virginia Woolf, ?. ?.Forster, Aldous Huxley, Graham Greene, Doris Lessing, and Nadine Gordimer; the dramatists G. ?. Shaw, Sean OCasey, Noel Coward, Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, Caryl Churchill, Brendan Behan, Frank McGuinness, and Tom Stoppard. The modern age was also an important era for literary criticism; among the innovative English critics were T. S. Eliot, I. A. Richards, Virginia Woolf, E R. Leavis, and William Empson. (See New Criticism. ) This entry has followed what has been the widespread practice of including under English literature writers in the English language from all the British Isles. A number of the authors listed above, were in fact natives of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.Of the Modern Period especially it can be said that much of the greatest English literature was written by the Irish writers Yeats, PERSONA, TONE, AND VOICE 21 7 Shaw, Joyce, OCasey, Beckett, Iris Murdoch, and Seamus Heaney. And in recent decades, some of the most notable lite rary achievements in the English language have been written by natives of recently liberated English colonies (who are often referred to as postcolonial authors)/ including the South Africans Doris Lessing, Nadine Gordimer, and Athol Fugard; the West Indians V. S. Naipaul and Derek Walcott; the Nigerians Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka; and the Indian novelists R. K. Narayan and Salman Rushdie. See postcolonial studies. The Postmodern Period is a name sometimes applied to the era after World War